This book examines how devotional movements became catalysts for social change at a time when caste oppression was deeply institutionalised
Through vivid accounts of various saints, Srinivasan highlights acts of spiritual defiance that functioned as radical resistance
He argues that the Bhakti movement emerged as a confluence of diverse philosophical traditions rather than a doctrine confined solely to Hinduism
Historically, India has remained a fragile and complex society, shaped by internal divisions deliberately fostered to consolidate regional authority and social dominance. Among these divisions, caste and religion emerged as the most entrenched obstacles to collective progress. Over time, these hierarchies allowed privileged groups, particularly those from upper castes, to monopolise resources, opportunities, and social power while systematically marginalising lower-caste communities. This reality, widely acknowledged and embedded across the nation, represents only one dimension of India’s social narrative.
The other side of this history, however, has often been sidelined because it challenges entrenched norms and promotes inclusivity that disrupts the established social order. This overlooked perspective finds powerful expression in ‘Rebellion in Verse: Resistance and Devotion in the Tamil Bhakti Movement’, where Raghavan Srinivasan delves into the essence of Hindu spirituality through the transformative lens of Bhakti. The work examines how devotional movements became catalysts for profound social change at a time when caste oppression remained deeply institutionalised.
Through vivid accounts of various saints, Srinivasan highlights acts of spiritual defiance that functioned as radical resistance. These figures challenged Vedic orthodoxy and dismantled Brahminical dominance by asserting devotion as a path accessible to all, regardless of caste or social standing. Their poetry and practices not only redefined religious expression but also served as a counterforce to rigid hierarchies, paving the way for a more egalitarian spiritual consciousness. The book does not romanticise Bhakti but comments quietly to state the ethos of this civilisation.
Srinivasan argues that the Bhakti movement emerged as a confluence of diverse philosophical traditions rather than a doctrine confined solely to Hinduism or its canonical texts. Although the Sangam period served as the foundational framework for the cultural and intellectual development of the Tamil region, commonly referred to as ‘Tamilakam’, the Bhakti movement evolved as a response to the gradual distortion of Sangam ideals. Various social and political forces began appropriating the Sangam tradition by limiting it through linguistic dominance, particularly Sanskrit, and redirecting it toward scriptural authority that collectively marginalised Tamil-speaking communities, their indigenous deities, and lower-caste groups.
In resistance to this exclusion, Tamil society demonstrated remarkable openness by embracing Buddhist, Jain, and Ajivika philosophies, forming what Srinivasan aptly describes as a “cultural buffet.” This spirit of pluralism played a decisive role in shaping the ideological foundations of the Bhakti movement. As a result, the three seminal Tamil epics, ‘Silappathikaram’, ‘Manimekalai’, and ‘Seevaga Chintamoni’, became central to Bhakti thought. These works emphasised deeply human emotions such as love, beauty, desire, grief, revenge, and joy, reinforcing devotion as an experiential and emotional practice rather than a rigid, scripture-bound tradition.
The author observes, “the Bhakti saints created more than poetry; they created a new language a new language of devotion, one that transcended caste and social hierarchies”. This assertion underscores the central aim of the Bhakti movement: to reshape society around personal devotion while eliminating the need for intermediaries between the divine and the devotee. By emphasizing direct spiritual engagement, the movement challenged established religious authority and democratised access to the sacred.
The devotional compositions of the saints, most notably those attributed to the twelve Alwars, devoted to Vishnu, and the sixty-three Nayanars, followers of Siva, played a crucial role in this transformation. Written in accessible and lyrical Tamil, their hymns and verses conveyed complex spiritual insights in a language that was both intimate and profound. These works enabled the Tamil-speaking population to engage deeply with spiritual knowledge, forging a powerful connection between personal faith and the divine that resonated across social boundaries.
Srinivasan further observes that as Tamilakam underwent increasing urbanisation, divisions based on class and caste became normalised within its social fabric. During this period, ruling elites and monarchs elevated Brahmins to positions of authority, appointing them as key representatives and intermediaries within their kingdoms. This institutional endorsement intensified caste hierarchies, turning social discrimination into an everyday lived experience for marginalised communities. In response to this reality, Srinivasan notes that “Bhakti provided a sense of belonging, a way to reforge connections, not through birth or caste, but through devotion, love and inclusivity”
Such conditions demanded a transformative vision, and the Bhakti movement fulfilled this need by offering people of Tamilakam a renewed sense of spiritual purpose. It empowered individuals to pursue the divine on their own terms, guided by emotionally charged hymns and poetic expressions that deliberately rejected caste, class, and rigid social identities. These devotional works fostered a spiritual egalitarianism that stood in stark contrast to the prevailing social order. As Srinivasan concludes, this movement did not merely inspire faith, it permanently reshaped the cultural and social landscape of Tamil society.
Figures such as Nambi Andar Nambi, Nathamuni, Appar, Sambandhar, and Manickavasagar, among many others, emerged as the defining voices of the Bhakti movement. Through their efforts, centuries of devotional hymns were gathered, preserved, and organised, reinforcing a spiritual ethos rooted in inclusivity. Their compositions reimagined Siva and Vishnu not as distant, inaccessible deities, but as intimate presences like companions, lovers, and confidants, thereby narrowing the divide between the divine and the devotee.
Notably, many Bhakti saints originated from marginalised and lower-caste communities, yet they entered the cultural mainstream through what Srinivasan describes as a “unified devotional tradition.” The deliberate simplicity of both the devotional songs and the temple spaces of this era conveyed a powerful message: divinity was not remote or exclusive, but attainable and immediate. This perspective directly challenged Brahminical authority, which had long conditioned society to believe that spiritual liberation was possible only through priestly mediation, grounded in exclusive access to scriptures and sacred knowledge. In contrast, the Bhakti movement asserted that devotion alone was sufficient, marking a radical departure from entrenched religious hierarchies.
In the contemporary era, religion is increasingly deployed as a political instrument, often reviving hostility not only toward followers of other faiths but also toward individuals who choose to experience or worship the divine in personal and nonconformist ways. A similar consolidation of power occurred after the decline of the Sangam philosophical tradition, when authority was deliberately confined to the ruling elite. Drawing attention to this historical parallel, Srinivasan notes that Appar “proclaims that the true measure of worth isn’t in birth or status, but in shared humanity.”
While it is true that Brahmins were also present among the Bhakti saints, Srinivasan emphasises that caste identity held little relevance within the movement’s devotional expression. As he observes, “Bhakti poets rarely, if ever, mentioned their own castes in their verses. The saints didn’t wear caste labels–they tore them down”. This deliberate erasure of caste markers highlights the movement’s commitment to spiritual equality. The inherent diversity of the Bhakti tradition enabled individuals from all backgrounds to participate freely, encouraging them not only to join the movement but also to liberate their thinking from the constraints of Vedic orthodoxy and the cultural rigidity imposed by Brahminical authority.
Srinivasan characterises the emergence of the Bhakti movement in Tamilakam as what he calls “a linguistic coup d’état.” Despite Sanskrit being officially sanctioned as the dominant religious language, the Bhakti tradition continued to flourish through Tamil, ensuring that devotion remained accessible to the broader population. However, Srinivasan is careful to note that these languages were “not in conflict, but in symphony,” with Tamil functioning as a “formidable counterpoint to Sanskrit’s religious gravity” rather than an outright rejection of it.
This linguistic interplay resonated across social boundaries, appealing equally to scholars and to everyday communities such as farmers, potters, and weavers. Rather than establishing a rigid or exclusionary religious framework, this dynamic prioritised spiritual awakening and emotional connection. As Srinivasan argues, the gradual shift from Sanskrit-dominated worshipping to Tamil devotional expression marked a profound democratisation of spirituality. It enabled individuals to approach the divine freely, without anxiety over social rank, caste affiliation, or the judgement of dominant groups, reaffirming devotion as a deeply personal and inclusive experience.
The fundamental distinction between the literary works of the Sangam period and those of the Bhakti era lies in their intended audiences. While Sangam poetry was largely composed for an educated elite, Bhakti compositions were created for the collective public. As Srinivasan notes, “Sangam poets may have performed in courts, but the Bhakti poets carried their art to the streets, the temples, and the crowds.” This shift marked a decisive movement away from exclusivity toward widespread spiritual participation.
To illustrate this transformation, Srinivasan references a verse by Nammalwar, one of the twelve Alwar saints. In his poetry, Nammalwar asserts that while the profound truths of the Vedas are undeniably real, they cannot be confined to a single language, script, or religious tradition. This sentiment captures the essence of Bhakti philosophy: spiritual wisdom is universal and experiential, meant to be lived and shared rather than restricted to scholarly or institutional domains. In contrast to Sanskrit-centred devotional practices, which often functioned as a one-sided mode of worship, the Bhakti saints employed a language that enabled continuous and active dialogue.
‘Rebellion in Verse’ revisits a historical and spiritual tradition that actively contested entrenched hierarchies of caste and class. The book frames the Bhakti movement as a mode of resistance that emerged in opposition to Brahminical ritualism and patriarchal authority, both of which functioned to marginalise and disenfranchise socially vulnerable communities. Through clear prose and carefully rendered translations of Bhakti poems, Srinivasan presents an accessible yet rigorous account of this alternative devotional ethos. His study foregrounds a neglected strand of Hinduism grounded in equality, dissent, and affective spirituality, thereby expanding conventional understandings of religious practice beyond orthodox and hierarchical frameworks.
Rebellion in Verse: Resistance and Devotion in the Tamil Bhakti Movement
Author – Raghavan Srinivasan
Publisher – Penguin Random House India
