China's alleged espionage activities have drawn scrutiny across sectors.
Huawei, Cloud Hopper and Salt Typhoon feature prominently.
CSIS documented 224 publicly reported US espionage cases.
A Chinese businesswoman, an alleged intelligence operation and one of the world's most powerful tech executives, a recent espionage controversy has put Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang in an unexpected spotlight.
US authorities are reportedly examining claims that Alice Huang, who was once associated with Singapore-based chip company Megaspeed, acted as an intelligence asset for Beijing.
Her reported links to Huang have added another layer to the allegations, prompting Nvidia to launch an independent investigation into whether its chief executive was targeted by a foreign intelligence operation.
But the concerns about China's alleged spying activities are far from new. Over the past decade, Western governments have repeatedly accused Beijing of using technology companies, cyber operations and intelligence networks to access sensitive information.
The latest controversy is part of a much longer history of espionage allegations involving China. Here is a timeline of some of the major allegations, investigations and incidents that have shaped the growing concerns over China's spying activities.
2012: US Raises Concerns Over Huawei And ZTE
Concerns about Chinese telecommunications companies became a major issue in Washington in October 2012, when a US congressional investigation examined Huawei and ZTE, two of China's biggest technology companies.
A report by the House Intelligence Committee warned that the companies could pose security risks because of their alleged links to the Chinese government.
The main concern was that Beijing could potentially use telecommunications equipment to access sensitive information or disrupt communications. Huawei and ZTE rejected the allegations.
The report did not publicly establish that either company had used its equipment to conduct espionage. Instead, it highlighted the potential security risks associated with their relationship with China.
2013-2014: NSA Surveillance Of Huawei
The debate took another turn in March 2014, when documents leaked by former US National Security Agency contractor Edward Snowden revealed that the NSA had infiltrated Huawei's computer systems.
According to reports by The New York Times and Der Spiegel, the operation, code-named Shotgiant, involved accessing Huawei's headquarters servers in Shenzhen and monitoring communications involving senior executives, including founder Ren Zhengfei.
The NSA was reportedly looking for evidence of links between Huawei and the Chinese military. It also wanted to understand the company's technology and explore ways to exploit its equipment.
2015-2016: Government And Corporate Data Breaches
The concerns extended beyond telecommunications equipment as investigators began linking several major data breaches to Chinese hackers.
In 2015, hackers breached the US Office of Personnel Management (OPM), stealing sensitive information belonging to millions of current and former federal employees. The stolen records included personal details and information collected during security clearance background checks.
Another major incident involved American health insurer Anthem. In February 2015, the company disclosed that hackers had accessed personal information relating to nearly 78.8 million people. US authorities later accused Chinese hackers of carrying out the attack.
2017-2019: Huawei Faces Growing Restrictions
Huawei became a central issue in the international debate over Chinese technology after several countries began reviewing its role in their telecommunications infrastructure.
A major concern was China's 2017 National Intelligence Law, which requires organisations and citizens to support and cooperate with national intelligence work. Critics argued that this could allow Beijing to compel Chinese companies to assist intelligence operations.
In August 2018, Australia excluded Huawei and ZTE from supplying equipment for its 5G networks. New Zealand followed with restrictions later that year.
In May 2019, the Trump administration placed Huawei on the US Commerce Department's Entity List, restricting its access to American technology and components.
Britain initially took a different approach. In January 2020, the government allowed Huawei limited access to non-sensitive parts of its 5G networks. However, following new US sanctions and a reassessment by British security officials, it reversed the decision in July 2020. Britain announced that telecom operators would have to remove Huawei equipment from their 5G networks by the end of 2027.
2018: Cloud Hopper And Marriott Breaches
In 2018, the US accused Chinese hacking group APT10 of running a prolonged cyber espionage campaign called Cloud Hopper. The operation targeted technology service providers, allowing hackers to access information held by multiple businesses.
Reuters later reported that hackers linked to China's Ministry of State Security had breached eight major providers. The same year, Marriott International revealed a separate breach of its Starwood reservation database, potentially exposing the personal information of up to 500 million hotel guests.
2023-2025: Volt Typhoon And Salt Typhoon Targets
Concerns about Chinese cyber operations intensified with the discovery of Volt Typhoon in May 2023. US and allied intelligence agencies accused the Chinese-linked group of infiltrating critical infrastructure, including telecommunications, energy, transport and water networks, and maintaining access that could be used to disrupt essential services during a future conflict.
In January 2024, the FBI disrupted a network of compromised routers used by the hackers. A subsequent intelligence advisory said the group had maintained access to some networks for at least five years.
In 2024, another Chinese-linked operation, Salt Typhoon, targeted major US telecom companies, including AT&T and Verizon, reportedly accessing call records, private communications and information linked to law enforcement wiretaps.
By December, the White House said at least nine US telecom companies had been affected. In January 2025, Washington sanctioned a Chinese hacking company and an individual over the campaign. Beijing rejected both sets of accusations.
Chinese Espionage In The US: What The Numbers Reveal
A study by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) offers a picture of the scale and changing nature of Chinese espionage allegations in the US. Its Survey of Chinese Espionage in the United States Since 2000 recorded 224 publicly reported cases involving attempts to gather intelligence or acquire sensitive information.
The incidents span military, commercial and political espionage, as well as alleged efforts to influence American politics. The findings suggest that intelligence gathering has expanded beyond stealing technology and business secrets to cover wider strategic interests.
Nearly 69% of the cases were reported after Xi Jinping took over China's leadership in 2012-13. Chinese military or government personnel were directly involved in 49% of the incidents, while private Chinese citizens accounted for 41%. The remaining 10% involved foreign nationals, mostly Americans allegedly recruited by Chinese officials.
It is important to distinguish between allegations, intelligence assessments and publicly established evidence. China has consistently rejected accusations of state-sponsored hacking, while Huawei has denied acting on behalf of Beijing.
The growing number of investigations has nevertheless made cybersecurity and the security of telecommunications infrastructure a major issue in relations between China and Western governments.
