Globalisation And The Middle East-I

Also See: Globalization And The Middle East-I

Probably no area in the world resists--at least explicitly--globalization to an extent equaling that of theIslamic Middle East. The majority of regimes, opposition movements, and intellectuals in the region areconsciously anti-globalization. Moreover, there is no part of the world where violence is more often used inthe anti-globalization struggle, most notably by Osama bin Laden but generally by all radical Islamistmovements.

How can this extremely important phenomenon be explained? It is useful to begin by setting some basicdefinitions.

First, globalization refers to the spread throughout the globe of ideas, customs, institutions, andattitudes originated in one part of the world. At present these are usually Western in origin. Thus, it iseasy to see globalization as largely equivalent to Westernization. Regions like North and South America,Europe and Africa, and even Asia to a lesser extent are more open to Westernization and globalization, in partbecause they have considerable Western components already. Nationalism comes dramatically into play whencertain aspects of Westernization are seen as challenges to a nation's ethos.

Second, much of globalization is related to what historically is called modernization, a set of behaviorsand beliefs that challenge traditional society. Globalization is seen as a major threat to tradition. Wherereligion is far more traditional in its practice, the defense of religion also conflicts with the acceptanceof modernization.

Third, the two factors that supposedly make globalization attractive are those of benefits and culturalsynthesis. If globalization makes life better, raises living standards, strengthens the society, andstabilizes the existing order (or helps replace it with an order its citizens deem to be better), people willprefer to accept more globalization.

The concept of cultural synthesis means that the society's existing or traditional ways can be blended withnew and foreign ideas to make a stronger hybrid. The modern history of Japan, for example, shows how such asynthesis can be constructed. The society is also selective in choosing what it wants to accept and reject,with those values or institutions most destructive of tradition being blocked.

Ultimately, then, globalization is accepted if and when it is perceived not as destroying the local societybut helping it to survive and flourish in a partly new form.

Finally it should be noted that even the most extreme explicit rejection of globalization does not meanthat globalization fails to infiltrate into the society. In Iran, where the Islamic republic has attempted toblock many foreign cultural and intellectual influences, it has often not succeeded. Indeed, these conceptshave been taken up by an opposition enjoying support from a majority of the population. Leaders of thisopposition, notably President Muhammad Khatami, explicitly speak of the need for cultural synthesis, whilesuggesting that globalization is a two-way street and the West can also learn from their society.

Let's now examine several points that help explain the Islamic Middle East's rejection of globalization.¹

Although it may seem paradoxical, a key reason for the rejection is the lack of previous culturalpenetration of the Islamic Middle East by Western culture, ideas and institutions. No matter how much suchinfluence can be found it is relatively far less than in other parts of the world.

North America, Europe, and Australia/New Zealand are Western societies. Whatever their local differences,even the former Soviet bloc countries of eastern and central Europe have a fairly easy time adapting toWestern culture after up to 75 years behind the "iron curtain." South America is largely the productof European (especially Spanish) cultural, religious, and linguistic influence. Sub-Saharan Africa has aparallel, if lesser, experience to South America, in part because of the extent of colonialism and thedismantling of traditional society. In part, too, European language and cultural influence transcends thepotentially conflicting societies of tribes that would make nation-state existence impossible or highlyunstable.

The situation of Asia is a bit more complex but it has proven to be quite adaptable in the field ofcultural borrowing. English has become the lingua franca not only in the former British colonies of SouthAsia, but increasingly in Southeast Asia and East Asia. In general, Asian religion has seemed most toleranttoward the apparent contradictions of globalization. For whatever reason, though, many Asian societies haveembraced cultural synthesis and been most successful in developing it.

In the Middle East, the picture is dramatically different. Almost everywhere, Christianity has remained amarginal religion, and even where it exists has either had little national influence--the Copts in Egypt--or adeclining role--the Maronites in Lebanon. Islam, a religion influenced by Judaism and Christianity in itsorigins but rarely since, sees itself very much apart from a global consensus and retains its own claim tohegemony. The very size and cohesion of an Islamic community builds a religious, and hence cultural, wallagainst many aspects of globalization.

It is also important to remember that Islam is a religion with its own set of laws and a claim to providethe proper order for society. Thus, many elements of globalization can contradict--or be thought to conflictwith--Islam, which is far less the case with Taoism, Buddhism, or Hinduism. Clearly, too, Islam has been goingthrough a period of reinforcement and regularization--fueled in part through the use of modern technology.

Rejection of Western culture can also be seen through the limited use of European languages in the MiddleEast. English, while empowered by being the major language of global interchange, has been very muchrestricted. French has declined sharply as an important language in North Africa, and other European languagesare almost totally absent. The principal language of all the Islamic Middle East is Arabic, except in Iran,and Arabic is also the language of Islam. The existence of a large and culturally powerful Arabic communitybuilds a linguistic wall against the penetration of Western languages which are such an important aspect ofglobalization.

As a result of these and other factors, the basic elements of globalization are seen as more alien in theMiddle East than elsewhere and are thus far more likely to be seen as hostile. Latin America might worry aboutbeing overwhelmed by music and food items, but the Islamic Middle East is likely to look at the entire list ofglobalization products and ideas as dangerous.

One final point in this context is the far lower degree of what might be called elite globalization. Forexample, in Czarist Russian times the elite tried to be as French as possible in their manners and culture. Inthe Middle East, as elsewhere, many elements of the contemporary political and financial elite arecosmopolitan in their behavior, habits, and ideas. Yet this process has proceeded far less in that region thanelsewhere, partly because of the factors mentioned above, and partly due to strong public pressure to maintaintraditional or national authenticity by opposing external influences.

Another important aspect of Middle Eastern opposition to globalization is the existence there of a fullydeveloped alternative world view. Without going into great length to analyze the contents of that doctrine, itincludes both Arab nationalism and Islam as prime ingredients. Globalization is seen as a surrender to adominant, non-indigenous standpoint. Not only does this lie in contradiction to the prevailing system, but itthreatens to undermine it. Rather than adapting to the world, the world is supposed to adjust to MiddleEastern beliefs. And many--especially among those with power--are willing to pay the material and historicalcost of their "anti-pragmatic" attitude.

On one hand, the Arab nationalists, Islamists, and the varying blends of the two, still believe that theyare destined to emerge as dominant in the world, and certainly in the region. On the other hand, they have aprofound inferiority complex, a sense of being behind which makes them feel all the more vulnerable. Preciselybecause they suspect that the emerging global system might be superior to theirs, in its practical effects atleast, they fear any compromise will bring total absorption and doubt their ability to survive a culturalsynthesis. In this sense, they reject the challenge that many other societies are quite ready to undertakewith greater confidence of keeping what they have and adding useful new features.

Still another problem is the nature of the political systems in Iran and every Arab state, as well as thesocial and intellectual structures that derive from them. Whereas in Europe, modernization swept awayautocratic regimes, in the Middle East dictatorships have learned how to survive and mobilize mass support.While repression is one way they do so, equally or more important are such tools as demagoguery, the creationof a supportive and pervasive system, and the persuasion of the public to support their governments. Thisincludes the use of such trump cards as claiming that anti-globalization is the only way of defending the Arabnation and Islam, as well as anti-American and anti-Israel sentiments. By presenting change as dangerous andcompromise as surrender, the regimes keep the support of their own people while also discouraging them fromsupporting certain elements of globalization --such as democracy, free enterprise, civil and humanrights--which would increase opposition to the current rulers or even overthrow them.

At the same time, they restrict and tame the forces usually associated with modernization and repress thosedemanding democracy, free enterprise, civil liberties and so on. The independent business class is kept weakby the state's domination of the economy, sacrificing efficiency and wealth for control. The middle classremains dependent on the state through the need for its patronage or direct employment. Intellectuals work forstate-controlled enterprises and are made the bearers of the state's ideology.

Even the opposition echoes the hegemonic doctrine while simply demanding it be implemented more thoroughly.Islamists share with the ruling Arab nationalists most of their ideas, including opposition to globalizationor modernizing reforms, while simply giving it a different flavor. Indeed, after the failure of Islamistrevolutions, the tone of Islamist rhetoric has turned to be even more directly and violently against the West,as seen in the jihadist movements of the early twenty-first century. The iron wall against globalization isactually becoming thicker and higher as time goes on rather than dissolving before the supposedly irresistibleonslaught. Of course, Iran, where Islamist forces actually gained power, is the exception here.

While there are Arab liberal forces, they remain shockingly weak and it would be no exaggeration to say, inmy estimate, that they muster not more than one percent popular support in many countries. Nor is it more thanwishful thinking to conclude that the next generation will be inevitably more open. It arguably will be moreclosed, having been the subject of much more intense and systematic indoctrination on both the Islamist andnationalist fronts.

In many countries and areas of the world, the idea of cultural synthesis has gained great favor. The termsof the debate have moved on to discuss what should be retained and what borrowed. In contrast, in much of theMiddle East, cultural synthesis is equated with treason.

Experience can also lead one to question the idea of what might be called technological determinism. Forexample, television, radio, and cassettes can be used to carry Islamist ideological lectures as well as rockmusic. Indeed, the use of technology--starting with Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini's propaganda campaign for arevolution in Iraq in 1978--has distinguished the ability to tighten controls.

Satellite television, notably al-Jazira in Qatar, has also been employed to spread extremist doctrine mosteffectively. Al-Jazira programs often feature a debate between a modernist and a militant nationalist orIslamist. The program's host makes it clear that the latter side is correct and the former argument isunacceptable or even evil. Screened telephone calls then support the radical side without exception. Studentswho have studied in the West more often than not return home to reinforce even further a rejection of thesociety they have just experienced. Having seen the West, they may focus on its shortcomings or fear theeffects of such ideas or institutions in their own countries. Indeed, by feeling tempted, they may feel guiltyand thus want to reinforce their own national, traditional, and religious character. It should be noted thatmany of the September 11 hijackers had experience of living in the West, reinterpreting Islam in a way thatfocused on making it a shield against any Western or globalization's influence and a sword to destroy thosethings altogether.

Arguably, there is a subtle effect in the spread of culture such as books, television programs, movies, andmaterial items such as cars, computers, and clothes. Only in the long run will it be possible to see howinfluential such things might be. Yet the depth of Middle Eastern opposition to globalization should not beunderestimated. Every indication is that it will extend years, even decades, into the future.

1. The area being referred to here includes that between Morocco and Afghanistan, with the exception ofIsrael and Turkey. Obviously, there are great differences among countries; contrasts between classes, regions,or ethnic groups; separating governmental policies and the daily practices of citizens, etc. This articleseeks only to make some useful general points as a start for further research.